Diphyllobothriasis

Diphyllobothriasis occurs in areas where lakes and rivers coexist with human consumption of raw or undercooked freshwater fish. Such areas are found in the Northern Hemisphere (Europe, newly independent states of the former Soviet Union (NIS), North America, Asia) (particularly in Japan (because of Sushi or Sashimi)), Uganda, Peru (because of Ceviche) Chile.
Around the middle of the 20th century in Japan, before advancements in refrigeration, many sushi/sashimi connoisseurs suffered great morbidity and mortality from Diphyllobothrium after eating unrefrigerated sashimi. Through research in parasitology, scientists came to realise that the primary cause was the relatively-favourable parasite-breeding conditions that raw fish offered.
The disease is rare in the United States, however it was once more common and was referred to as "Jewish housewife's disease" because Jewish housewives preparing the traditional "gefilte fish" frequently tasted the fish before it was cooked

Praziquantel and niclosamide are historical treatments that should no longer be used as first line therapy in developed countries; they result in destruction and disintegration of the worm which may make it impossible to confirm that the scolex (head of the worm) has been passed (the only way to confirm cure). Praziquantel or niclosamide should only be used in situations when endoscopy is not available or is not possible.
The preferred treatment for all tapeworm infections is injection of diatrizoic acid into the duodenum, which causes the worm to detach and be passed whole.

Cryptosporidiosis

Cryptosporidiosis is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite in the phylum Apicomplexa. It affects the intestines of mammals and is typically an acute short-term infection. It is spread through the fecal-oral route; the main symptom is self-limiting diarrhea in people with intact immune systems. In immunocompromised individuals, such as AIDS patients, the symptoms are particularly severe and often fatal. Despite not being identified until 1976, it is one of the most common waterborne diseases and is found worldwide. The parasite is transmitted by environmentally hardy cysts (oocysts) that, once ingested, excyst in the small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue

There is no reliable treatment for cryptosporidium enteritis -- certain agents such as paromomycin, atovaquone, nitazoxanide, and azithromycin are sometimes used, but they usually have only temporary effects.[citation needed]

In the immuno-competent the majority of immuno-competent individuals suffer a short (less than 2 weeks) self limiting course that requires supportive care with re-hydration and occasionally anti-diarrhoeal medication and ends with spontaneous recovery.
In the immunocompromised however, in immunocompromised individuals—such as AIDS patients—cryptosporidiosis resolves slowly or not at all, and frequently causes a particularly severe and permanent form of watery diarrhea coupled with a greatly decreased ability to absorb key nutrients through the intestinal tract. The result is progressively severe dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, malnutrition, wasting, and eventual death. The mortality rate for infected AIDS patients is generally based on CD4 marker counts; patients with CD4 counts over 180 cells/m³ generally recover with supportive hospital care and medication, but in patients with CD4 counts below 50 cells/m³, the effects are usually fatal within three to six months. During the Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis epidemic (the largest of its kind), 73% of of AIDS patients with CD4 counts lower than 50 cells/m³ and 36% of those with counts between 50 and 200 cells/m³ died within the first year of contracting the infection.

Currently, the best approach is to improve the immune status in immunodeficient individuals. The probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii sold over the counter in pharmacies and health shops (Brand name Florastor in US and DiarSafe in UK) has been found to be a helpful natural treatment in managing diarrhoea of various infectious origins including cryptosporidium

Babesiosis

Babesiosis is a malaria-like parasitic disease caused by Babesia, a genus of protozoal piroplasms. After trypanosomes, Babesia are thought to be the second most common blood parasites of mammals and they can have a major impact on health of domestic animals in areas without severe winters. Human babesiosis is uncommon, but reported cases have risen recently because of expanded medical awareness.

Most cases of babesiosis resolve without any specific treatment. For ill patients, treatment is usually a two-drug regimen. The regimen of quinine and clindamycin has been used, but is often poorly tolerated; recent evidence suggests that a regimen of atovaquone and azithromycin can be equally effective . In life-threatening cases, exchange transfusion is performed. In this procedure, the infected red blood cells are removed and replaced with fresh ones.
Veterinary treatment of Babesiosis does not normally use antibiotics. In animals diminazene (Berenil), imidocarb or trypan blue would be the drugs of choice for treatment of Babesia canis rossi (Dogs in Africa), Babesia bovis, and Babesia bigemina (cattle in Southern Africa).
There is a vaccine that is effective against Babesia canis canis (dogs in the mediterranean region) but this is ineffective against Babesia canis rossi. Babesia imitans causes a mild form of the disease that frequently resolves without treatment (dogs in South East Asia).

Ascariasis

Ascariasis is a human disease caused by the parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. Perhaps as many as one quarter of the world's people are infected, and ascariasis is particularly prevalent in tropical regions and in areas of poor hygiene. Other species of the genus Ascaris are parasitic and can cause disease in domestic animals.
Infection occurs through ingestion of food contaminated with feces containing Ascaris eggs. The larvae hatch, burrow through the intestine, reach the lungs, and finally migrate up the respiratory tract. From there they are then reswallowed and mature in the intestine, growing up to 30 cm (12 in.) in length and anchoring themselves to the intestinal wall.
Infections are usually asymptomatic, especially if the number of worms is small. They may however be accompanied by inflammation, fever, and diarrhea, and serious problems may develop if the worms migrate to other parts of the body.

Pharmaceutical treatments include:
Mebendazole (Vermox) (C16H13N3O2). Causes slow immobilization and death of the worms by selectively and irreversibly blocking uptake of glucose and other nutrients in susceptible adult intestine where helminths dwell. Oral dosage is 100 mg 12 hourly for 3 days.
Piperazine (C4H10N2.C6H10O4). A flaccid paralyzing agent that causes a blocking response of ascaris muscle to acetylcholine. The narcotizing effect immobilizes the worm, which prevents migration when treatment is accomplished with weak drugs such as thiabendazole. If used by itself it causes the worm to be passed out in the feces. Dosage is 75 mg/kg (max 3.5 g) as a single oral dose.
Pyrantel pamoate (Antiminth, Pin-Rid, Pin-X) (C11H14N2S.C23H16O6) Depolarizes ganglionic block of nicotinic neuromuscular transmission, resulting in spastic paralysis of the worm. Spastic (tetanic) paralyzing agents, in particular pyrantel pamoate, may induce complete intestinal obstruction in a heavy worm load. Dosage is 11 mg/kg not to exceed 1 g as a single dose.
Albendazole (C12H15N3O2S) A broad-spectrum antihelminthic agent that decreases ATP production in the worm, causing energy depletion, immobilization, and finally death. Dosage is 400 mg given as single oral dose (contraindicated during pregnancy and children under 2 years).
Thiabendazole. This may cause migration of the worm into the esophagus, so it is usually combined with piperazine.
Hexylresorcinol effective in single dose, mentioned in : Holt, Jr Emmett L, McIntosh Rustin: Holt's Diseases of Infancy and Childhood: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners. Appleton and Co, New York,11th edition
Santonin, more toxic than hexylresorcinol, mentioned in : Holt, Jr Emmett L, McIntosh Rustin: Holt's Diseases of Infancy and Childhood: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners. Appleton and Co, New York,, 11th edition
Oil of chenopodium, more toxic than hexylresorcinol, mentioned in : Holt, Jr Emmett L, McIntosh Rustin: Holt's Diseases of Infancy and Childhood: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners. Appleton and Co, New York, 11th edition
Also, corticosteroids can treat some of the symptoms, such as inflammation.
Native Americans have traditionally used epazote (Chenopodium ambrisioides) for treatment, which was not as powerful as pharmaceutical compounds, but spontaneous passage of Ascarids provided some proof of efficacy.[citation needed]
Some recent studies exist in the medical literature suggesting that sun-dried papaya and watermelon seeds may reduce infections by a large factor. The adult dosage is one tablespoon of the seed powder in a glass of sugar water once a week for two weeks. The sugar makes the bitter taste palatable and acts as a laxative.[citation needed

Amoebiasis

Amoebiasis, or Amebiasis refers to infection caused by the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica. The term Entamoebiasis is occasionally seen but is no longer in use; it refers to the same infection. Likewise amoebiasis is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to infection with other amoebae, but strictly speaking it should be reserved for Entamoeba histolytica infection. Other amoebae infecting humans include

A gastrointestinal infection that may or may not be symptomatic and can remain latent in an infected person for several years, amoebiasis is estimated to cause 70,000 deaths per year world wide. Symptoms can range from mild diarrhea to dysentery with blood and mucus in the stool. E. histolytica is usually a commensal organism. Severe amoebiasis infections (known as invasive or fulminant amoebiasis) occur in two major forms. Invasion of the intestinal lining causes amoebic dysentery or amoebic colitis. If the parasite reaches the bloodstream it can spread through the body, most frequently ending up in the liver where it causes amoebic liver abscesses. Liver abscesses can occur without previous development of amoebic dysentery. When no symptoms are present, the infected individual is still a carrier, able to spread the parasite to others through poor hygienic practices. While symptoms at onset can be similar to bacillary dysentery, amoebiasis is not bacteriological in origin and treatments differ, although both infections can be prevented by good sanitary practices

E. histolytica infections occur in both the intestine and (in people with symptoms) in tissue of the intestine and/or liver. As a result, two different classes of drugs are needed to treat the infection, one for each location. Such anti-amoebic drugs are known as amoebicides or amebicides. Metronidazole, or a related drug such as Tinidazole, Secnidazole or Ornidazole, is used to destroy amoebae that have invaded tissue. These are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the site of infection. Because they are rapidly absorbed there is almost none remaining in the intestine. Since most of the amoebae remain in the intestine when tissue invasion occurs, it is important to get rid of those also or the patient will be at risk of developing another case of invasive disease. Several drugs are available for treating intestinal infections, the most effective of which has been shown to be Paromomycin (also known as Humatin); Diloxanide Furoate (also known as Furamide) is used in the US and Iodoquinol (also known as Yodoxin) is used in certain other countries. Both tissue and lumenal drugs must be used to treat infections, with Metronidazole usually being given first, followed by Paromomycin or Diloxanide. E. dispar does not require treatment, but many laboratories (even in the developed world) do not have the facilities to distinguish this from E. histolytica.
For amebic dysentery a multi-prong approach must be used, starting with one of:
Metronidazole 500-750mg three times a day for 5-10 days
Tinidazole 2g once a day for 3 days is an alternative to metronidazole
In addition to the above, one of the following luminal amebicides should be prescribed as an adjunctive treatment, either concurrently or sequentially, to destroy E. histolytica in the colon:
Paromomycin 500mg three times a day for 10 days
Diloxanide furoate 500mg three times a day for 10 days
Iodoquinol 650mg three times a day for 20 days

Posttraumatic stress disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to one or more terrifying events that threatened or caused grave physical harm.
It is a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma. This stressor may involve someone's actual death, a threat to the patient's or someone else's life, serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity, overwhelming psychological defenses.
In some cases it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm. Often, however, the two are combined.
PTSD is a condition distinct from traumatic stress, which has less intensity and duration, and combat stress reaction, which is transitory. PTSD has also been recognized in the past as railway spine, shell shock, battle fatigue, traumatic war neurosis, or post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSS).
Diagnostic symptoms include reexperience such as flashbacks and nightmares, avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, increased arousal such as difficulty falling or staying asleep, anger and hypervigilance. Per definition, the symptoms last more than 6 months and cause significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (e.g. problems with work and relationships.)

Many forms of psychotherapy have been advocated for trauma-related problems such as PTSD. Basic counseling for PTSD includes education about the condition and provision of safety and support.
Cognitive therapy shows good results, and group therapy may be helpful in reducing isolation and social stigma. The psychotherapy programs with the strongest demonstrated efficacy include cognitive behavioral programs, variants of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training (SIT), variants of cognitive therapy (CT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and many combinations of these procedures. Psychodynamic psychotherapy, while widely employed, has not been well tested as a treatment for PTSD.
Exposure involves assisting trauma survivors to therapeutically confront distressing trauma-related memories and reminders in order to facilitate habituation and successful emotional processing of the trauma memory. Most exposure therapy programs include both imaginal confrontation with the traumatic memories and real-life exposure to trauma reminders.
Indeed, the success of exposure-based therapies has raised the question of whether exposure is a necessary ingredient in the treatment of PTSD. Some organizations have endorsed the need for exposure. Yet other approaches, particularly involving social supports, may also be important.
A recent open trial of interpersonal psychotherapy reported high rates of remission from PTSD symptoms without using exposure. An ongoing trial is testing interpersonal psychotherapy in relation to exposure and relaxation therapies at New York State Psychiatric Institute

Microorganism

A microorganism (from the Greek: μικρός, mikrós, "small" and ὀργανισμός, organismós, "organism"; also spelled micro organism or micro-organism) or microbe is an organism that is microscopic (usually too small to be seen by the naked human eye). The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design.
Microorganisms are very diverse. They include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and protists; microscopic plants (called green algae); and animals such as plankton, the planarian and the amoeba. Some also include viruses, but others consider these as non-living. Most microorganisms are unicellular (or single-celled), but this is not universal, since some multicellular organisms are microscopic, while some unicellular protists and bacteria, like Thiomargarita namibiensis, are macroscopic (visible to the naked eye).
Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere where there is liquid water, including hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks within the Earth's crust. Microorganisms are critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather.
Microbes are also exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. However, pathogenic microbes are harmful, since they invade and grow within other organisms, causing diseases that kill millions of people, other animals, and plants.

Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, all organisms were microscopic. So, for most of the history of life on Earth the only form of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since the triassic period.
Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly and microbes such as bacteria can also freely exchange genes by conjugation, transformation and transduction between widely-divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and many other means of genetic variation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the recent development of 'super-bugs' — pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to modern antibiotics.